Minorities continue to face disparities in access to education and are less likely to complete a full course of schooling. In some cases, there is a reluctance of parents and children to enrol in schools where children face discrimination and/or that fail to provide culturally relevant education. These obstacles prevent the achievement of MDG 2 and contribute to long-term problems of unemployment, cultural erosion and social deprivation. Many of these obstacles can be overcome through the application of minority rights (see also section 3.4.1 of this Guide on education rights for minorities).

There are several factors that contribute to poor access to education for minorities. These include the following: lack of mother-tongue education; poor provision of schools and qualified teachers in minority regions; prohibitive costs of school fees that disproportionately impact on minorities (as the poorest groups); curricula that do not reflect community priorities for learning; and discrimination by teachers and/or pupils. The obstacles for minority girls will be even greater (see discussion under Goal 3).

	The disparities in access to primary education for minorities were noted by UNDP Serbia: All indicators measuring universal primary education show that this goal [on primary education] has already been achieved in Serbia, with net enrolment in primary education at 95%… [However], a large difference exists between standards in urban and rural schools, particularly with regard to accessibility for ethnic minorities, including Roma children. See http://www.undp.org.yu/mdg/default.asp

The MDG country reports of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cambodia, China, Hungary, the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam mention minority education. Baseline data is needed to measure existing inequalities in access to education for minorities. The challenge remains as to how to address such disparities. Two key issues are resource implications and cultural identity. MDG 2 strategies must address these issues simultaneously.

In order to ensure universal enrolment and educational attainment, marginalised minority children and schools will need additional support. Many governments will be concerned about resource implications for improving enrolment of minorities. With pressure to achieve MDG 2, using resources to achieve maximum gains towards the MDGs will be the priority. It is important, however, that efforts to reach the MDGs in the short-term are consistent with long-term sustainability of development interventions. Support to minorities could include: more teacher training for minority teachers or for teaching in/of minority languages; incentives for teachers to teach in areas where minorities live; the provision of more schools in minority areas; exemption or subsidisation of school fees for the poorest minorities; and review of safe access to schools for minority children.

	Good practice on education Some of the good practices states have used to ensure minorities access education include: Offering education in minority languages; Providing disaggregated data on children able to access education in their mother tongue; Adopting additional MDG targets for minorities in relation to education; Providing education that is sensitive to the cultural identities of minority students and that promotes inter-cultural understanding Reviewing national laws to help eliminate discrimination against minority children in access to education.

On identity issues, consideration may be given as to how the curriculum reflects minorities and whether there are identity barriers that may impede minorities from staying in school. In many cases, sending children to school can weaken the ability of families to meet their basic survival needs; where parents do not see that the education offered will be of use in the long-term economic and cultural survival of their communities, enrolling children becomes a low priority. These concerns are best discussed in consultation with minority community members. Education should not undermine cultural identities but rather should help to protect those identities, while also enabling children to participate effectively in the wider community.

Protecting the right to mother tongue education is key. As the 2003 Human Development Report on the MDGs confirms, "[i]n countries where several languages are spoken, teaching in the mother tongue in the early years dramatically improves the learning experience" (UNDP 2003, p. 7). The UN Declaration on the Rights of National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities provides, "States should take appropriate measures so that, wherever possible, persons belonging to minorities may have adequate opportunities to learn their mother tongue or to have instruction in their mother tongue" (article 4.3). Mother tongue education in the early primary years can ease transition into schools of majority languages and sustain enrolment for minority children, thus improving overall figures for educational attainment. In some cases the child's mother tongue may not be a written language. Efforts could be made to involve members of that linguistic community in the schooling process, for example, by inviting community members to share cultural stories or knowledge and skills held within the community. This can improve community engagement in education, create valuable inter-cultural exchange, and make children from these linguistic groups feel an equal part of the education system. In Morocco, for example, the government has invested resources in teaching and documenting the Amazigh language, which was previously unused in schools but has been integrated into the curriculum since 2003.

National curricula could be amended to include more opportunities for inter-cultural education. Recruitment of teachers from minority groups could help with language barriers and inter-cultural understanding. Minority groups may also wish to establish education that promotes and develops their culture and livelihoods.²¹ All of these steps may help to prevent parents from withdrawing their children from formal education where they are seen to be discriminated against or gaining no culturally relevant knowledge. In both the short and long-term, this is the best means of achieving universal primary education.

Minority girls and women experience intersecting forms of discrimination Cultural factors can play a role in access to education for minority girls